Modules 5 & 6
Part 2: Supplementary Information
PSY 545
Dr. Harry Rotter

What is Meant by Working Memory?

Often synonymous with Short-Term Memory (STM) it is a temporary
storage for information that is required to complete a specific task(s).
Important is that working memory allows you to keep information active to
be utilized on a variety of cognitive tasks. One problem is that working
memory has a limited capacity regarding the tasks that an individual uses.
tasks.

Matlin, M.W. (2009). Cognition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons
Reed, S.K. (2010). Cognition: Theories and applications. Belmont,CA: Wadsworth
image: news.uchicago.edu

Classic Research on Working Memory (Short-Term Memory)
George Miller’s Magical Number Seven
1956 – Article published: The magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two
Demonstrated the capacity to hold a limited number of items for a limited time
(Seven Items plus two or minus two). Known as the capacity model with
limitations. Note: Our cognitive processes are active. Miller also used the term
“chunk” where memory consists of several components (Think of how you
remember a telephone number).

Click on the following links for additional information:


Miller, G.A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on the capacity for processing information. Psychological

Review. 63, 81-97
Image: pinterest.ca

Brown/Peterson & Peterson Technique

Material held in memory for less than a minute is frequently forgotten.
Participants studied three letters. They then saw three-digit numbers and
counted backward by threes. This prevented them from rehearsal and is
a form of interference. Results indicated that participants recalled most
of the letters on the first trials, but recall was poor after several trials. The
bottom-line is that memory is fragile.

Peterson, L. R. & Peterson, M. (1959). Short-term retention of individual verbal items. Journal of Experimental
Psychology, 58, 193-198.

Image: psychteacher.co.uk

Factors Pertaining to Examining Short-Term Memory

Serial Position – It is often easier to remember words that are presented first and
last with recall being poorest for items presented in the middle.

Recency Effect – You recall items better at the end of a lists.

Primacy Effect – Better recall for items at the beginning of the list. Refer to the
above graph.

This led to the most important approach to human memory by Atkinson and
Shiffrin in 1968.

Rundus, D. (1971). Analysis of rehearsal processes in free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 89, 63-57.
image: link.springer.vcom

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Model:
Information-Processing Model (1968)
Known as the multistore model of memory or the modal model.
It is actually a structural model that consists of three stores: Sensory register,
Short-term memory (STM) and Long-term memory (LTM).
As with previous researchers, they understood the fragility of memory.

Atkinson, R. C. & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system in its control processes.
in K.W. Spence & T. J. Spence (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in
research and theory (Vol. 2, pp. 89-105). New York: Academic Press.

Image: researchgate.com

Alan Baddeley’s Model of Working Memory
In viewing this model, there is a limited capacity of each component. The
original model contained three components: The phonological loop, The visuo-
spatial sketchpad, and the Central Executive. The current model contains the
episodic buffer. A summary of these components are as follows:
Phonological Loop – This is limited to sounds for a brief period of time. This
includes sounds that we process in our mind and learning new vocabulary,
math problems, and remembering instructions. Such tasks must be processed
through the phonological loop. In addition, it converts written material into a
phonological code to be registered in the phonological store. Just think, of
mathematical calculations where you have to keep track of numbers.

Atkinson, R. C. & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system in its control processes.
in K.W. Spence & T. J. Spence (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in
research and theory (Vol. 2, pp. 89-105). New York: Academic Press.

Image: researchgate.net

Alan Baddeley’s Model of Working Memory
The Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad – Responsible for processing visual and spatial
information. This enables you to store images of objects and where they are
located. It is used in navigation and activated in activities such as puzzles,
mazes, and games. Another example is when you listen to a story and you
visualize scenes of the story. This also involves spatial and the movement of
information, as well as the planning and execution of body movements.
Example: Look at some objects in front of you. Close your eyes and try to touch
one of the objects. Your sketchpad allows you to create a brief image of the
object.

Atkinson, R. C. & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system in its control processes.
in K.W. Spence & T. J. Spence (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in
research and theory (Vol. 2, pp. 89-105). New York: Academic Press.

Image: nature.com

Alan Baddeley’s Model of Working Memory
Central Executive – incorporates information from the phonological loop, the
visuo-spatial sketchpad, the episodic buffer, and from long-term memory. The
central executive is responsible for suppressing irrelevant information. Think of
the executive as a traffic cop that helps you to decide what to do and not to do.
Remember, it does not store material. It mainly plans and coordinates
information. Some of the major functions involved with the central executive are
multitasking, selective attention, and daydreaming.
Example: As you are working on your research proposals, the central executive is
playing an active role in helping you to organize your final paper.

Atkinson, R. C. & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system in its control processes.
in K.W. Spence & T. J. Spence (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in
research and theory (Vol. 2, pp. 89-105). New York: Academic Press.

Image: researchgate.net

Alan Baddeley’s Model of Working Memory
Episodic Buffer – This was added to the model 25 years later Baddely’s fourth
component. It serves as a temporary storehouse to integrate information
obtained from the phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and long-term
memory. It is really a temporary storage system that uses information to make
a clearer connection between working memory and long-term memory. An
example is the words that you use while talking.

Interview of Alan Baddeley

Atkinson, R. C. & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system in its control processes.
in K.W. Spence & T. J. Spence (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in
research and theory (Vol. 2, pp. 89-105). New York: Academic Press.

Image: york.ca.uk

Baddeley’s Model of Working Memory

psynso.com

References

Atkinson, R. C. & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system in its control

processes in K.W. Spence 7 T. J. Spence (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation:

Advances in research and theory (Vol. 2, pp. 89-105). Academic Press.

Matlin, M. W. (2009). Cognition (pp. 93-118). John Wiley & Sons.

Miller, G.A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on the

capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81-97.

Peterson, L. R. & Peterson, M. (1959). Short-term retention of individual verbal items.

Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58, 193-198.

Reed, S. K. (2010). Cognition: Theories and applications (pp. 75-99). Wadsworth.

Rundus, D. (1971). Analysis of rehearsal processes in free recall. Journal of Experimental

Psychology, 89, 63-77.

Wright, J. R. (2013). “Disclaimer: All information, images, and links on this website are

thought to be public information. If there is a problem with any copyright violations,

email [email protected]

Links
1. A brief, interactive version of Baddeley’s original model of working memory.

http://cat.xula.edu/thinker/memory/working/

2. Science Direct provides an article that explains in great detail the addition of
the episodic buffer to Baddeley’s model of working memory.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661300015382

3. Just interested in some basic quick facts? eLearning coach provides 20 facts
you should know about working memory.
http://theelearningcoach.com/learning/20-facts-about-working-memory/

Links

4. A long, but very informative scholarly article of the history of working
memory in great detail.
http://www.stanford.edu/dept/SUSE/SEAL/Reports_Papers/YuanEtal_Working
Memory.pdf

5. GoCognitive provides several different videos of Baddeley himself explaining
his model of working memory.
http://gocognitive.net/interviews/alan-baddeley-working-memory